The Fund supports networks of state health policy decision makers to help identify, inspire, and inform policy leaders.
A bipartisan group of state health policymakers from both the executive and legislative branches who are focused on improving population health.
Networks of state officials, advocates, and others aiming to invest in and transform primary care.
A program dedicated to advancing state-based efforts to make health care more affordable for residents, employers, and states.
The Milbank Memorial Fund supports two state leadership programs for legislative and executive branch state government officials committed to improving population health.
A leadership development program for early and mid-career state government officials who are committed to improving the health of all people in their communities.
A leadership program for senior state government officials who are committed to improving population health.
The Fund focuses on creating an affordable health care system built on strong primary care and partnerships that improve health outcomes for all.
Improving state leaders’ ability to enact and implement evidence-based health policies.
Advancing policies that create a more prevention- and primary care-oriented health system.
Improving population health through policies that contain health care cost growth.
Our state health policy resources offer relevant data analysis and best practices.
The Fund publishes reports, issues briefs, and case studies on state health policy issues.
Short takes on health policy issues from Milbank staff and guest authors.
Insights from Milbank President Debra Lubar on state health policymaking.
Reported articles and Q&As on timely health policy issues, as well as foundation updates.
Milbank Memorial Fund and Milbank Quarterly webinars featuring state health policymakers and researchers.
Updates and expert contact information for reporters.
The Milbank Memorial Fund is a private foundation that works to improve population health and health equity.
March 2026 (Volume 104)
Quarterly Article
Guangyi Wang
Daniel F. Collin
Deborah Karasek
Rita Hamad
Jul 30, 2026
May 6, 2026
June 2026
Back to The Milbank Quarterly
Policy Points:
Context: In July 2021, to alleviate material hardship, Congress temporarily expanded the Child Tax Credit (CTC), one of the largest income transfer programs in the United States. Prior research has linked the expansion to improvements in material hardship, food insecurity, and parental mental health. This study is among the first to examine its association with child well-being.
Methods: We analyzed data from 1,028 children in the 2020-2021 waves of the Child Development Supplement of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, a national longitudinal data set. CTC exposure was defined based on benefit size calculated using eligibility rules. Outcomes included caregiver/self-rated child health, behavioral problems, and food security. We used individual fixed-effects models to estimate within-person changes in outcomes, comparing pre- and postexpansion periods while adjusting for time-invariant confounders. The 2021 PSID wave (November 2021-June 2022) included three CTC phases: 1) advanced monthly payments (November-December 2021), 2) expired monthly payments (January-April 2022), and 3) following the distribution of remaining lump sum (May-June 2022). Analyses were stratified by these phases to capture potential disparate impacts. We also conducted subgroup analyses by income and race/ethnicity.
Findings: During the monthly payment period, a $1,000 increase in CTC was associated with a 0.69-point reduction of behavioral problems in the overall sample (95% confidence interval [CI]: −1.31 to −0.067), corresponding to a 10% reduction from baseline. No associations were observed after monthly payments expired. Following the distribution of the lump sum, lower-income children had worse caregiver/self-rated health (−0.075, 95% CI: −0.14 to −0.010) and increased behavioral problems (0.95, 95% CI: 0.45-1.45) compared with higher-income children. Differences by race/ethnicity were also observed.
Conclusions: More frequent distribution of unconditional cash benefits may improve child behavioral health. These findings inform ongoing state and federal poverty policymaking and contribute to theoretical knowledge on income and child health.